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Moon Not Yet a Dead World, Says CamOle Flammarion
Famous French Astronomer Tells Why
He Believes the Satellite Still Has
an Atmosphere and May Be th e Home
of a Monstrous Vegetable Life,
By Camille Flammarion,
The Famous French Astronomer.
THE human bouI always goes to extremes.
Only a hundred years ago astronomers
and poets allko wroto of the Inhabi
tants of the Moon, the Selenltes, with all ot
the assuranco of witnesses who had really
seen them and recognized In them creatures
organized just like the inhabitants of our
planet, without stopping to think that other
worlds might not bo like ours, the conditions
ot existence being so different. They even
described the landscapes, the streets and the
great cities, the fortifications, tho Industrial
establishments, the smoke ot factories, even
the weekly day ot rest.
But all at once Ideas changed. Prom 1830
to iSiO tho German astronomer Maedler de
voted himself to a careful study ot the moon
and his beautiful map became a classic. His
work was followed by that of Schmidt, director
jt tho observatory at Athens, who Issued a
"selenographic" chart which was oven more
complete. Maedler thought that the terres
trial globe would pass through no geologic
changes, from our time onward, and as to
the moon, in his eyes, It was an ankylosed
world for ages, upon whose surface, there wore
no variations.
Upon tho authority ot this omlnent observer
an aphorism soon appeared in the classic
works: "The moon is a dead star." And for
more than half a century most books repeated
this legend, with tho exception some few.
thinkers who do not givo themselves up to
generalizations which have not been demon
strated, but seek the truth independently, set
ting aside all preconceived notions.
Solitary torch of night, as It moves through
tho heavens, this star is tho palo witness ot
the vicissitudes of our earth. Its tranquil
clarity seems enveloped in mystery. Its land
scapes and monuments are all transfigured.
But this wan light, even if it be tho imago
of nearing lethargy, Is not, as has been sup
posed, the absoluto image of death.
Of course tho aspects of our satellite do not
resemble those which our earth would offer
at the same distance
Nor have we, In our observations ot tho
moon, the moving variations which appear on
the planet Mars an Intense activity associated
with marked seasons and almost dally meta
morphoses. Nor aro there tho fantastic and formid
able revolutions, such as we observe on that
giant world, Jupiter, Just now passing through
i;3 period of primordial elaboration. But tho
attentive study of the moon holds many sur
prises for naturalists and astronomers.
It seems interesting to analyze the most
precise observations made, to compare theoi
carefully, and to prove in how far our notions
should be modified. I am especially interested
because the very first subject which 1 pre
sented to the Academy of Sciences was on tho
variability of tho lunar crater of Linnaeus, and
that, was in 18U7. So I have been working up
on this article for somo forty-seven years.
I was not tho only one at that time to hold
that tho moon was not yet dead, and since then
Webb, ot England; William Pickering, of the
United States, and Klein, of Germany, have
agreed with me, but they are tho exceptions.
Somo even go so far as to say that tho moon
never had air, water or life.
The first classic affirmation that must be
disputed is that the moon has no atmosphere.
This statement is founded upon a calculation
by the great astronomer Bessel, which has to
bo entirely recast. Inasmuch as when the
moon, by virtue of Its own motion in the
heavens, Is about to pass a star, we may fix
the precise moment of the disappearance ot
tho star as well as the exact Instant ot Its
reappearance, and so arrive at the duration of
the occultation, or hiding, of tbe star.
On the other hand, we can determine abso
lutely by calculation what line the star follows
behind tho lunar disk during Its occultation
and thence deduce tho time which the moon
takes to move forward In the heavens a dis
tance to that line. For, during the eclipses ot
stars, if the rays of. light were deflected ever
so little by tho refraction of a lunar atmos
phere, In placo of disappearing at the precise
instant ot geometrical contact, the star would
remain visible sometime afterward, because
tho rays would be inflected by that atmos
phere; by the same reasoning, tho star would
begin to reappear on the opposite side of the
lunar disk somo time before the interposition
had completely ceased; the duration of the
occultation would necessarily be decreased in
this way.
About 1830. Bessel thought that he might
state that the diameter' of tho moon figured
from the duration of the occultatlons differed
by less than a second of an arc of the diameter
directly measured, and that the refraction
produced on these occultatlons by a supposed
lunar atmosphero is insignificant, whence tho
German astronomer concluded that this atmos
phero, if it exist, must be at least 900 times
rarer at tho surfaco ot tho moon than at tho
earth.
But this conclusion is excessive, for the oc
cultatlons observed since then with the
greatest precision provo that this difference
is sometimes two seconds to two nnd a half
seconds. Tho received reason raised since
Dossal's time against thoro being any lunar
atmosphere has no uioro valuo to-day, and tho
probabilities all point In the other direction.
Ho relied with too much confidence upon
tho. telescopic determinations of tho diameter
of tho lunar globe. No one can have forgotten
tho central ecllpso of tho sun which took place
near Paris, especially over Saint-Germain,
April 17, 1912. That ecllpso was neither an
nular nor total, and I suggested for this
special case a namo which has been generally
adopted, "pearled eclipse," because the edge
of the sun remained visible in the intervals
between the irregularities ot tho lunar edge
produced by tho mountains of tho moon pro
jected upon the luminous edge, and because
these slopes presented tho appoaranco ot a
string of pearls.
I showed at the same tlrao that, henceforth,
wo should distinguish in our calculations
three diameters: of the moont 1. Tho insldo
circumference, passing. GVSf' tho plains 'anil '
valloys;" 2. Tho outer clrcumforehcel passing
over the summit; 3. An average clrcumferenco
between these two extremes. The extreme
circumferences differ by' at least two seconds,
or about 16,000 feot, and give for the three
diameters, 2,152; 2,154; 2,153 miles.
Wo see now how far wo aro from tho abso
lute circle of Bessel. We may also remark
that tho mountainous contour changes In per
spective according to the epoch and the libra
tlons or balancings of our satellite.
The moon may hide a star either by Its
illuminated edge, or by tho dark side. Tho
duration of the occultation may reach one hour
and fifty-five minutes, if it bo central. Tho
star disappears almost instantly, evon when
It is of tho first magnitudo, which may be true
of four stars in the zodiac before which the
.moon may pass: Aldobaran, Splca Vlrglnas,
Antares and Regulus. When tho occultation Is
made by the dark side of tho moon, which is
absolutely Invisible, this sudden disappearance
always surprises tho observer, although he
expects it.
Sometimes, instead of disappearing instant
aneously, the star shines through ono of the
valleys ot the moon, ot which I have just
spoken, and is hidden only after somo delay.
Sometimes it is projected,' llko a small light
on the dark sido ot tho moon, and only dis
appears a few seconds later.
On February 24, 1904, I observed tho occul
tation of Aldobaran, which was almost cen
tral. Aldebaran seemed like a reddish torch
by the side ot the moon's goldon light. The
star disappeared instantly behind tho dark
side ot the moon which was Invisible. But
another observer, looking at tho samo phenom
enon from another part of the earth, observed
that Aldebaran was projected upon tho dark
side of the moon for two or three seconds be
fore it disappeared. Tho moon is so near
our earth, only thirty diameters of tho oarth
away, that these variations nre common, be
cause of tho different angle presented to ob
servers. April 24, 1913, Gheury, observing from Elt
ham, England, studied tho occultation of the,
star PI of Scorpio, of the third magnitude,
and ho saw a very dim star issue from the
disk, which became moro brilliant a second
later. The observer attributed this phenom
enon to a lunar atmosphere sufficiently dense
to havo settled down into a valley behind
which the star was hidden at the moment ot
emergence.
Tho occultatlons ot stars lead us, in certain
cases, to attribute an atmosphere to the moon
varying in density. ThlB density may vary
considerably as tho temperature of tho soli
of this neighboring globe changes greatly. .
The rays of the burning sun heat it for a long
period of fifteen times, twenty-four hours, and
Bhould raise the temperature higher than that
of boiling water; and a night Just as long should
make the temperature fall every month below
freezing, possibly to 100 or 200 below zero.
The. stratum which may exist on tho surfaco
of-tbe lunar globe, and especially In tho val
leys, is subject to these great variations.
Moreover, although during solar eclipses
the' edge ot the lunar dlBk is absolutely clear
and cuts, tho solar disk by a sharp Intersec
tion, tliero are, nevertheless, exceptions. Thus,
during "the eclipses of Soptember 29, 1875, and
May 17, 1882, the English astronomer. Noble,
saw at the two ends of the curvo ot contact
Vipy
Tho Fantastio Graters of tbe Moon Which Astronomer Oamillo Flammarion Thinks May Bo tho Homos of Lifo. Our Earth
tIs Seen As It Would Appear from tho Moon's Surfaco.
(TOOOOOOOOO
EARTH.
Diagram Showing How
of tho moon eclipsing tho sun tho solar odgo
slightly thrown back in two, littlo points.
Thollon observed tho last ecllpso also in
Egypt, where It was total, and u6ted( a thicken
ing ot tho rays of tho solar spectrum, appear
ing to lndicato an absorption duo to a light
lunar atmosphero.
I have often observed, especially on that
part of the moon to tho north ot tho groove
of Ilyglnus, on a lunar landscape well known
to stenographs, a grayish tint indicating a
variation ot tho soil independent of solar light.
Besides, I havo obsorved a twilight effect
when studying tho vast east plain ot the Sea
ot Serenity on tho third day of lunation. The
dark spots on the moon, spoken ot ns seas,
aro not, as we know, real . watery oxpansos, '
but gray plains.
Well, in that plain to tho north, tho lrrogu
lar circle ot the Caucasus, and south, the chain
of Menelas emerge like ' two luminous poin:a
vlslblo through an ordinary opera glass. The
lighted edge ot tho plain is not cut off sharply
by an abrupt lino separating tho lighted coun
try from that which is still in darkness, but
it molts gradually, as It tho summit dropped.
It is a real penumbra. Calculation show3
that tho solar disk enould produce, by its
size, a penumbra ot 32 ot tho aro of tho great
circle on tho moon, which would bo about too
miles. But I havo often observed a much
larger penumbra.
The question ot a lunar atmosphero Is very
closely connected with that of volcanoes nnd
eruptions, attended as they aro by vapor and
gases formed in somo way. It seems as it tho
craters scattered all over the moon aro not
active, and that they emit no vapors. But this
Is too radical and premature a statement.
William Herschel considered Arlstarchus to
be active, stating in 1787 that it burnod
with great brilliancy, lighting up all around
It, But thero are other reasons for holding
that tho moon Is not a dead star.
A dead star Is one upon which thore Is
no motion, no variation, an unmoving globe,
but many Instances may be cited to tho con
trary. The crater Linnaeus has been proved by
latest obsorvera to be subject to wido varia
tions, possibly duo to Increase or diminution
of snow, and tho doublo crater, Messier, has
changed greatly since it was so carefully
studied between 1829 and 1837. Tho crator
Taquet disappeared altogether in 1911, accord
ing to ICorn, although neighboring and lower
craters are still visible.
The observer notes variations dependent
upon the date ot lumlnatlon, but independent,
of course, of those which aro caused by tho
variations of solar lighting, which may bo
moro or less oblique, aud concludes "that
under the action of certain geological phe
nomena, of tho exhalations of vapors escaping
from great depths, tho crater Is masked."
Staemmler writes that on January 25. 1912,
Taquet seemed to him to bo covered by a trans
parent vapor through which ho could dimly
see the shadow of tho walls ot tho crater.
What is the nature of tlicso omissions? Are
they geysers of water? Aro they smoke?
Vapors of carbonic acid? Jets ot pulverized
matter? No matter what It be that is thrown
up from the eruptive mouth, that which Is
thrown up only hides the crater from tho earth,
ly observer, and this makes tho examination
all the more difficult. Besides we see these
activities from a great distance. The moon li
riKht, 1914, hi tho Ftnr f"ompsin Great llrltaln HIbMs
Many Earths It Woul d Take, Laid Sido by Side,
238,850 miles from us; nn enlargement ot 1,000
times would bring it only within 238 miles ot
our vision. Wp havo to study it usually from
n'Btill greater distance, of nearly GOO miles,
What cah wo distinguish at such a dlstanco?
For the eruptions to bo vlslblo at all thoy must
bo' Very vlolont.
Wo havo no right to say that thoro aro not
still fiery volcanoes thoro In full action. Tem
ple, while studying tho Mont Blano ot tho lunar
Alps, noted that whllo tho district was in
shadow thoro was ono luminous point, burning
with tho brilliance ot a star ot the fifth mag
nitude, for fifteen minutes, then disappearing
irrevocably. Had tho astronomer soon a raro
eruption? This same luminous point was
seen again by tho English astronomor, Grovor,
lasting for thirty minutes, with tho brilliancy
ot a star ot tho fourth magnitudo. This was
years later.
Instances ot tho shadowing ot tho soil, in
many regions ot tho moon, during tho long
solar day of fourteen times twenty-four hours
aro numerous, and I havo selected Bonio of tho
most characteristic aftor studying tho seventy
ono admirable photographs ot the Moon-Atlas
Issued by tho Paris Observatory, in which tho
astronomer Pulseux has Indicated tho intrin
sic variations which differences ot Illumina
tion do not explain. Wo may cite especially
an oval spot near the ctrclo of Vltr'uvlus, which
measures nine by fifteen mllos, and anothor
near tho circle ot Ball, having tho form ot a
V, varying in size, but being greatest on the
nineteenth day ot lunation; another near
LicotuB, which the laat ot the sun develops
or Bhades, attaining Its maximum after the in
sulation lias begun to docroaso; another near
Struvo, which Increases Inversely to tho aotlon
ot tho sun's heat, which sometlmos looks Ilka
a lizard, etc.
Since 1887 tho Flammarion lunar clrolc, a
great circular plain flfty-flvo miles long, near
tho central meridian of the disk, has beon
carefully observed by tho astronomers of every
country, and all ot these astronomers agree
that most strange variations .In color appear
when It is exposed to the solar rays. M, Do
seilllgny claims, after years ot observation,
that lie has found clear furrows and regions
which vary in shade according to tho quantity
of solar hont thoy receive He has gathered
somo 120 drawings under tho titlo ot "Palus
putrodlnls" (a locality on tho moon), which
provo the following: In proportion to tho
height to which tho sun mounts their horizon
tho vulleys tako on n sombro appearance, at
tlmos very dark; when tho sun is docllnliig,
they begin to get lighter, and they resume
their gray tint toward evening, botore sunset.
Without Insisting further on the variations
ot the lunar sun I have only to conclude that
they aro certain, and that tho soli can no
longer be considered a block ot unvarying
mineral. Wo may OBk ourselvos, what is the
naturo of theso variations, and may begin
with the most simple.
In February, 1914, I noted some very simple
variations around me. In January wo had
passod through a very cold period and tho soil
had boon frozen to a considerable dopth. For
fourteen consecutlvo days, from tho 12th to
the 25th, the average temperature of tho twon-ty-four
hours was bolow zero In Paris, going
as low as 6 or 10 below. Between the 2d and
6th ot February wo had a radiant sun. clear,
cold nights, white frost in the mornings. We
saw Borne peculiar things on the oarth. Tho
pavements, In all this flno weather, remained
damp und dark all duy, except those which
woro dried by tho sun and wind, In tho parks
we walkod on mud mado by tho earth and Ice.
Tho condensation of the humidity fixed by the
frost in the morning gave tho asphalt pavo-
Jtrservcd
T-TOOK
to Reach Our Satellite.
A Photograph of an Eclipse of tho Moon,
Showing Atmospheric Distortion of tho
Image at the Ends of the Points of
Contact.
ments a coating of glassy mud. Can not the
samo conditions prevail on the moon? Very
simple and easy causes may bring about ap
parently great results.
This explanation may apply to some cases.
We can lmaglno easily how insulation may
produce variations ot a chomlcal order. Pho
tography illustrates this. If thero aro on tho
surfaco of the moon such substances as will
blacken under tho rays of the sun, which are
so luminous, so hot, actinic, electric, etc., this
hypothesis is not Improbable.
Tho solar action may also produce other ef
fects, which are no longer only of a mineral
oglcal or physical order, as the fusion ot the
frozen surface saturated with water, or of a
chemical order, as the darkening of certain
salts, but ot a vegetable order, such as tho
production ot mosses, grass, mushrooms, lich
ens, rudimentary plants developing swiftly un
der tho warming Influence of tho sun, which
takes an hour to rise and eight days to reach
tho meridian.
But why should wo talk of minute plants, ot
mosses and poor rock-lichens? Can not this
long solar irrndiatlon produce some glgantli
effects? Seon from tho earth mosses ana oaks
aro identical, I havo always been struck, dur
ing my balloon trips, by the aspect of land
scapes when seen from above. Whother they
are lofty forests, or grass-grown plains, they
look alike, and the hills themselves are edges
ot valleys, tho surfaces which spread out be
low seeming an Immense plain, varied only by
tho colors and tones of different plants.
And besides earthly conditions do not pre
vail on the moon. May not thoso variations bo
neither mineral nor vegetable? We aro very
far from knowing everything or being able to
understand all things.
What I havo tried to establish hero Is that
these variations exist. They indicate tho pres
ence ot mobile elements, water, air, liquids,
gases, atmosphere, no matter what their chem
ical composition may be. Are those deep
shadows only thick Ice that Is something at
least. Tho occultatlons. tho changes observed
in the craters, tho glimpses between, the
clouds or occasional mists or smoke-masses,
tho darkonlng ot vast regions under tho action
ot tho sun, all join In proving to us that THE
MOON IS NOT A DEAD WORLD.