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FIRST SUBMARINU BOAT.
Invontfon of David BtislmoU at
Early ns 1775.
Doubtless what was the first sub
martno torpedo boat was tho Inventloi
of, David Hushnell of Saybrook, Conn
It was built In 1T76, though nushnel
appears to have been working on tin
Idea for many years prior to that.
While the boat was n rude affair of
most primitive construction, there Is
hardly a Question but that some use
might have been made of It, had the
government been willing to second him
In his labors. As It was he spent his
fortune on his Invention and derived
no uenoflt from It, nor did any one else.
Of the publlo men of tho day, Thomas
Jefferson nlon' nccms to have taken nn
Interest In -the boat, for the only com
plete description of It Is to bo found
In a letter which Bushnell wrote to him
under date of October, 1787, In which
he fully described the construction and
operation of his unique craft.
This dcscrlplton Is most minute and
detailed, but In view of Holland's much
discussed submarine boat and the In
terest all classes, save government offi
cials, have taken In It, the letter la
worth whllo producing In part, It Is
as follows:
"The external shape of the silbrna.
rlne boat bore some resemblance to
two upper tortoise shells, Joined togeth
er, tho flue or entrance Into tho vessel
being represented by the openings mado
by the swells of the shells at the head
of the animal. The Inside wns capable
of containing the operator and air suf
ficient to support him for thirty min
utes without receiving fresh air. At
the bottom opposite the entrance wns
fixed a quantity of lead as ballast, at
one edge. Directly before tho operator,
who sat upright, was an oar for row
ing forward or backward. At the other
was a rudder for steering. An aper
ture nt the bottom, with Its valves, was
designed to admit water, for tho pur
pose of descending, and two brass forc
ing pumps served to eject tho water
within when necessary for ascending.
At tho top there was likewise an oar
for ascending or descending, or con
tinuing nt any particular depth. A
water gauge or barometer determined
the depth of the descent, a compass di
rected the course, and a ventilator sup
plied the vessel with fresh air when on
the surface.
"The entrance Into the vessel was
elliptical and so small as barely to ad
mit one person. This entrance was sur
rounded by an Iron band, the lower
edge of which was let Into the wood on
which the body of the vessel was made
In such a manner as to give Its utmost
support to the body of the vessel
against the pressure of the water.
Above the upper edge of this Iron band
ther was a crown or cover resembling
a hat, with Its crown and brim, which
shut water tight upon the Iron band.
The crown was hung to the Iror. band
with hinges to make It turn over side
ways when opened. To make It per
fectly secure when shut It might be
screwed down upon tho band by the
operator, or by a person within.
"There was in the brass crown three"
round doors, one dliectly in front, and
one on each side, large enough to put
the hand through. When open they ad
mitted fresh air. Their shutters were
ground perfectly tight Into their plnc;s
when shut. There were likewise sev
eral glass windows In the crown for
looking through and for admitting light
In the daytime, with covers to secure
them.
"There were two air pipes In the
crown, a ventilator, which drew fresh
air through one of the pipes and dis
charged It Into the bottom part of the
vessel. The fresh aid Introduced by
the ventilator expelled Impure air thro'
the outer pipe. Both air pipes were so
constructed that they shut themselves
whenever the water rose near their
tops, so that no water could enter thro
them.
"The vessel was chiefly ballasted with
lead fixed to the bottom: when there
was not sufficient a quantity was
placed within, more or less, according
to the weight of the operator. Its bal
last rendered It so solid there was no
danger of Its oversetting. The vessel
with all Its appendages and the oper.
ntor was of sufficient weight to settle
It low In the water. About 2C0 pounds
of lead at the bottom for ballast could
be let down forty or fifty feet below
the vessel. This enabled the operator
to rise Instantly to the surface of the
water In case of accident.
"When the operator desired to de
scend he placed his foot upon the top
of the brass valve, depressing it, by
which he opened a large aperture In the
bot'om of the vessel, through which the
water entered nt his pleasure. When
he had admitted a certain quantity he
descended very gradually. If he ad
mitted too large a quantity, In order to
obtain an equilibrium he ejected as
much as was necessary by the two
brass forcing pumps, which were placed
at each end; when ever the vessel leak
ed or he desired to ascend to the sur
face he also made use of the forcing
pumps.
"When the operator had obtained an
equilibrium, he could row upward or
downward, or continue at any particu
lar depth, with an oar placed near the
top of the vessel formed upon the prln
clple of a screw. By turning the oar
In one direction he raised the vessel:
by turning It In the other he depressed
it
"A glass tube eight Inches long and
one inch in diameter, standing upright.
Its upper end closed ana Its lower end,
which was open, secured Into a brass
pipe, through which the external water
had a passage Into the glass tube,
served as a water gauge.
"Therejwas a piece of cork with
phosphorus on It put Into the water
?augc condensing tho air within ant'
jearlng tho cork on Its surface. By the
Iglit of tho phosphorus the ascent of
.he water In tho gaugo wob rendered
visible, and tho depth of tho vessel re
orded by n graduated scale.
"An oar formed on tho principle of
tho screw wns fixed In the foro part of
the vessel, and being turned in one di
rection rowed tho vessel forward, and
turned In tho other rowed It back
ward. It was constructed to bo turned
by the hand or foot.
"A rudder to the hinder part of the
vessel, which commanded It with the
greatest case, was mado very flexible
and might be used for rowing forward
"A compass marked with phosphorus
directed the course above and under
tho water.
"The Internal shape of the vessel In
every possible Boctlon of It verged to
wnrd an ellipsis, as near as tho design
would allow, but every horizontal sec
tion, although elliptical was yet as
near to a circle as could be obtained.
, . Every opening was well se
cured. The pumps had two sets of
valves. The aperture at tho bottom
for admitting water wns covered with
a plate perforated full of holes, to re
ceive the water and to prevent any
thing from closing the passage or stop
ping the valves from shutting. The
brass valve might likewise be forced
Into Us placo with n screw. The air
pipes had a kind of hollow sphere fixed
round the top of each to secure them
from Injury. These hollow spheres were
perforated full of holes for the passage
of the air through the pipes. Without
the air pipes were shutters to secure
them should any accident happen to
the pipes or the valves on their tops."
Bushnell does not give the dimensions
6f his craft, but from his description
and tho fact that it was designed to
carry but one man, It is probable It was
no longer than a small row boat.
Crude as It was, It fully expresses
the idea back of the submarine boat of
today. Even when floating on the
surface of the water It must have been
welt nigh invisible.
The flrat submarine bont was equip
ped with a torpedo, or "Infernal," of
which Bushnell also seems to have been
the Inventor, for In his letter he tells
of the difficulty he had In convincing
people that powder could be exploded
In the water.
Describing the torpedo and tho ar
rangement made for conveying It and
placing It In position to fire, Bushnell
says:
"In the forepart of the brim of the
crown of the vessel was a socket thro'
which an Iron tube passed. The tube
stood upright, and could slide up or
down six Inches. At the top of the
tube was a wooden screw fixed by
means of a rod which passed through
the tube and screwed the wood screw
fast upon the top of the tube. By push.
Ing the wood screw up again the bot
tom of a ship and turning It nt the
same time, It would enter the planks.
When the wood screw was firmly fixed
It could be cast off by unscrewing the
rod which fastened It upon the top of
the tube.
"Behind the vessel was a place above
the rudder tor carrying a large powder
magaelrs. This wa3 mode of two pieces
of oak timber large enough when hol
lowed out to contain ICO pounds of pow
der, with the npparatus used In firing
it. A rope extended from the maga.
zlne to the wood screw above men
tloned. When tho wood tube was fixed
and to be cast off from Us tube, tho
magazine was to be cast off likewise,
leaving It hanging to the wood screw.
It was lighter than the water, that
It might rise up against the object to
which tho screw and Itself were fast,
ened.
"Within the magazine was a clock
constructed to run any proposed length I
o' time under twelve hours. When It
had run out Its time It unplnloned a
strong lock resembling a gun lock,
which gave fire to the powder. Tho
apparatus was so pinioned that It could
not possibly move till by casting off
the magazine from the vessel It was
set In motion.
"The operator could swim so low In
the water as to approach very near
a ship In the night, without fear of
being discovered, and mtght. If he so
chose, approach tho stem or stern with
very little danger He could sink very
quickly, keep at any necessary depth
and row a grat distance In any direc
tion he desired without coming to the
surface. When he rose to th'e surface
he could soon obtain n fresh supply of
air, and If It was necessary he might
then descend again and pursue his
course."
Bushnell mnde many experiments
with his queer craft. In order to dem
Instrnte Its practicability. While none
of the experiments were entirely suc
cessful, they were all far from being
failures. They served to show that the
boat and Its Infernal might be used on
the ships of the enemy with telling re
sults.
One attempt was made on a man- of.
war lying off Governor's Island, New
York harbor. The operator succeeded
tn propelling his bont under his Intend
ed victim without the least difficulty,
so Bushnell claimed, but when It came
to fastening the wooden screw In her
planking he encountered some hard
suDsiance, ana in snirting ror a new
point of attack drifted clear of the ship
and could not again find her. After
continuing his search for a long time
he rose to the surface for a fresh sup.
ply of air, when he discovered that It
was not far from daylight, and fearing
discovery returned to New York. Some
what later a trial was made In tlu
Hudson river, but nothing was accom
plished by It.
In 1777 Bushnell made his most sue
cessful experiment. It was conducted
against the English frigate Cerberus,
as she lay at anchor off New London.
By mr is of a lino whUh ho controlled
at a safe distance from a whalo boat,
he send his magazlno or torpedo drift.
Ing down against the frigate's side.
Tho magazine was heavily charged
with powder and was to be exploded
at the proper moment by a gun look
on the Insldo.
It never reached Its Intended prey,
however, but drifted foul of a small
schooner, tho crew of which took It
from tho water and proceeded to ex
amlno It at their leisure on deck.' As
they worked with It they managed to
release the lock, and a frightful explo
sion followed, which killed threo mcnl
on the spot and blew a fourth over
board. A subsequent attempt was
made by Bushnell on the ships of a
British fleet in the Delaware river. In
this trial he did not use his submarine
boat, but only his magazines or torpe
does. This nttempt was entirely unsuc
cessful, owing to his lack of knowledge
of the river's currents. This nppears to
have been his last effort to Impress tho
public with the importance and utility
of his inventions, for he shortly after
wards went to France, and remained
abroad for many years. When he final
ly returned to America he settled In
Georgia, where he died In 1820.
When a Person is Homesick.
There are few of us who have never
known tho pangs of homesickness, and
those few are rather to bo pitied than
envied. Homesickness In mild form Is
a sign of a gentle mind, and Indicates
the possession of a love of home and
country which Is the characteristic of
civilized and normal man.
This mild form, fortunately, Is the
only kind which most of us have ex
perienced, for when the Bevero form
takes possession of a person It Is a
terrible disease, cnustng untold misery
and even death. This severe form, us
ually called nostalgia, has grown less
common In these days of quick com
munication, or rapid transmission of
news and of a widespread knowledge
of geography.
The element of Ignorance of one's
surroundings and consequent sense of
helplessness and despair of ever seeing
home again, which at times gone by
so oppressed the sufferer from nostal
gia, Is now removed, except In the case
of the very young or the densely Ig
norant. The greatest sufferers are Highland
ers, German and Swiss mountaineers,
or the Celtic Scots, and men are more
apt to be overcome than women.
The victim of this extreme form of
homesickness Is almost always a re
sourceless person, one whose life Is a
routine of trivialities, whose Ideas are
few and limited, and such as they are,
based upon familiar objects and well
known associates. When such a per
son Is placed In new surroundings no
new Ideas are created, but there Is a
gnawing longing for the past, which Is
the more Intense as a return seems Im
possible. The patient, for such he really Is,
broods over what he has lost, rejects
what Is offered In place of It, and be
comes apathetic and taciturn. Sleep
becomes fitful, and Is disturbed by viv
id dreams of home. The appetite falls,
digestion grows poor, and tho sufferer
becomes thin and haggard. There Is
headache, with dullness of Intellect and
finally, perhaps, a condition of com
plete Indifference to everybody and
everything, which may end In death
from a failure of the vital organs to
perform their functions.
Could Not Boil tho Water.
The advice given probably to each
and every soldier before he left tho
United States as to how he might avoid
the climatic dangers of Cuba could not
in most instances be followed. The
water, which was apparently good, was
not boiled, for the good reason that
there was nothing In which to boll It.
One Massachusetts company was for
tunate enough to have pots and kettles
enough for the purpose and a captain
energetic enough to enforce the order,
and the men drank nothing but fluid
which had gone through the beating
process. The remainder of the army
used the raw liquid.
Neither did the soldiers refrain from
sleeping In the open air at night. On
their forced marches they threw away
nearly everything they had except
their rifles, cartridge belts and can
teens. When the halt came they sim
ply threw themselves on the ground and
slept there. Big camp fires were not
and cannot be built, for the simple rea
son that they would be beacons to the
enemy and also because dry firewood
Is scarce In a country so thoroughly
saturated with moisture as Cuba Is at
this season of the year.
Keeping clean was another bit of ad
vice which could not generally be fol
lowed. When on duty at the seashore
the men took baths at every opportun
ity, but In the country, when march
ing, fighting and struggling for life,
they were glad If they could get some
thing to eat, which happened some
times, and a dry place to sleep In,
which did not often happen. Uniforms
which were In fair condition when the
wearers arrived In Cuba soon became
disreputably dirty. Linen could not be
washed, as there were no laundries
nnd no washerwomen around. To keep
clean under the circumstances was an
Impossibility for the average soldier.
All the advice crlven uaa wpii mpnnt
and If It could have been followed
would doubtless have prevented much
suffering, but things so shaped them
selves that It became Impracticable
to obey all the rules of sanitation or
even any of them. There were cases In
which It seemed that things might
have been done differently. The hos
pital at this place, for Instance, might
have been located In a healthier place
than next to a row of old buildings and
a railroad track, where two noisy lo
comotives ran hack and forth at all
hours. The facilities at hand might
,Yve been sd to better advantnge.
Probably this has been recognized by
those at fault or their superiors and
I?m Kture campaigns similar mistakes
will be avoided.
WHY WARS ABE SHOUT.
Tuoy Affoct tho Wliolo World
in a Business Way.
Short wars, very bitter and savage,
whllo they lasted, but soon over, have
been the rulo of modern times. The
modern spirit will not brook delay In
anything, least of all In military oper
ations. When the present war broke
out the entire nation was clamorous
for the immediate Invasion of Cuba;
thousands fully expected that the stars
and stripes would be raised over Morro
within a week, and wero disappointed
that this result was not achieved. Dis
regarding tho fact that this country
was utterly unprepared for war, people
expected Impossibilities. Tho govern
ment was compelled to create and equip
an army, and, to do the administra
tion justice, tho work was done with
wonderful celerity; but the fact that
it was not Instantly accomplished was,
to many a cause of annoyanco and com
plaint. Yet In three months two Span
ish fleets have been destroyed, the
victorious American arms have been
carried Into the two Spanish posses
sions In the West Indies and a formid
able force has been sent half round
tho world to fight for freedom on the
Asiatic Islands. Spain has had enough
and if the war does not speedily end
It will constitute a remarkable excep
tlon to the wars of our age.
The only other exceptions to the rule
prevalent In this century have been
civil conflicts waged among the people
of the same country. A civil war dif
fers in many important respects from a
conflict between Independent states. It
Is characterized by greater bitterness
and, being carried on by the peoplo
rather than by the armies, rages In
every country town and neighborhood
and Is protracted by the personal ani
mosities of the peoplo themselves. Our
civil war lasted four years, the last
Insurrection In Cuba continued ten
years; the last Corllst war in Spain was
carried' on for a period of four years,
a previous insurrection among the
Basques continued from 1830 to 1810,
while the civil strife In the same re
gion, following the pacification else
where after the downfall of Napoleon,
continued seven years. These are the
longest wars of this century; the re
mainder were seldom protracted be
yond the second campaign.
The war between China and Japan
lasted less than a year, for the signal
success of the Japanese on sea and
land resulted In the complete collapse
of the Chinese military system, and
overtures of peace were made as soon
as the fact was clearly apprehended In
Pekln. The next serious conflict before
that was the war between Turkey and
Russia, which began'early In the spring
of 1877 and lasted through the summer.
Military operations were suspended
during the winter, and In the following
spring peace was concluded before the
season for campaigning began. The
The war which freed northern Italy
from the domination of the Austrluns
and mado the peninsular kingdom a
possibility, was waged between May
12 and July 12, sixty days covering not
only the preliminary operations of the
war, but also the negotiations of peace.
All the actual campaigning was done
In three weeks, Magenta being fought
on June 4, and the battle of Solferlno
on June 24. The latter virtually con
cluded the war by satisfying the Aus
trlans that there was no hope of ulti
mate success.
The last war between England and
Russia, commonly known as the Cri
mean war, lasted about two years, be
ing declared on March 28, 1854, and
peace being declared March 30, 1856.
The Crimean war originated In a dis
pute between France, Russia and Tur
key as to the guardianship of the
Church of the Holy Sepulcher In Je
rusalem. Russia claimed the honor of
controlling the holy places In virtue
of the fact that they were nominally
under the rule of Greek ecclesiastics,
while the sultan, as lord of the land,
declared that the shrines of the Holy
City were his own peculiar property.
"War between Russia and Turkey be
gan, and was conducted for a consld
erable time before the other powers of
Europe participated in the struggle,
'but when the purpose of Russia to lay
violent hands on as much of Asia Mi
nor as could be appropriated became
evident, England nnd France Interfered
snd Victor Emmanuel, then king of
Sardinia, sent a small contingent of
troops to give his country a position
among the European states. The allied
passage of the Danube, the heroic de
fense of Plevna, the bloody struggles
for the Shlpk passes, the naval op
tjratloas 4 Me Black sea, the sieges
of Batoum and Kars, the Bulgarian
massacres, the complete defeat and dis
persion of the army of Suleiman Pasha,
the passage of the Dardanelles by the
Ironclade, all were crowded into a per
iod of less than a year.
The tremendous war between France
and Prussia lasted only one year. Wur
was declared In midsummer, and be
fore the following spring the conflict
was over. Gravelotte and Sedan. th
sieges of Metz and Paris, the occupa-
I tlon of all northern andtcentral France
by the German hosts, the horrors of
,the commune and the suppression of
the Insurrection by the troops of the
line In the streets of Paris crowded
upon each other like the incidents of
a melodrama, and before the astonished
world fully realized the actual state
of the case France was prostrate and
United Germany consolidated Into an
empire, was the leading state of cen
tral Europe.
The war of 18C6 between Austria and
Prussia Is known as the Seven Weeks'
war. War was proclaimed June 18, the
battle of Koeniggratz followed In a
few days, and the decisive overthrow
of the Austrian arms on that memor
able field led tho government at Vienna
to aBk for peace at once. Tho petition
was granted, and on August 23 tlu
treaty was concluded by which peace
ful relations wero resumed. The Schles-wlg-Holsteln
war lasted but a few days
all the active campaigning being ovei
in a week but then this conflict war
not really a war at all, for the help
lessness of Denmark against tho two
powerful robbers which despoiled her
territory led tho government of Den
mark to conserve the lives of Its men,
and only a show of resistance was
made.
The war between this country nnd
Mexico lasted two years, but there was
really but ono campaign, that mado by
Pcott through tho territory of Mexico,
and resulting In tho occupation of the
capital. The war between the Tcxans
and tho Mexicans had been going on
for Beveral years prior to participation
by tho United States, but, being of
the nature of a civil war, or, rather, of
a rebellion against an organized gov
ernment, does not come Into the cate
gory of a war between Independent
states.
The wars resulting from the French
revolution lasted, with short Intervals,
from 1799 to 1815, but though the whole
period was virtually ono protracted
struggle, the Individual wars of this
time were short. Napoleon had the
faculty of being able to overcome his
enemy In a single campaign and rarely
wero two necessary to accomplish his
purpose. Napoleon's campaign In It
aly In 179G was enough for Austria, and
a treaty followed. The battle of Ma
rengo In 1800 decided the fate of all
North Italy, and was followed by
peace; the campaign of Austerlltz re
sulted In the complete overthrow of
the Austrian military power In 1805, and
and the Austro-Hungarlan emperor was
glad to make terms with the conquer
or. Prussia was prostrated in a single
campaign, which ended with the tri
umph at Jena In 1806. Napoleon sub
dued Spain In one summer, though the
French did not count upon the guer
rilla warfare Immediately inaugurated
by the Spanish chiefs against the In
vaders, which ultimately brought as
sistance from England, and was one
of the contributing causes of the down
fall of the great emperor.
The Russian arms could not resist the
advance of Napoleon and the over-
-whelmlng defeat at Borodino, In 1812,
gave him possession of the ancient
capital of the czara. The emperor, how
ever, could not overcome the elements.
As Victor Hugo says. "Napoleon was
conquered by God." He was not pre
pared for tho terrible Russian winter,
and the arctic winds, snow and sleet
accomplished what the arms of man
had never been able to effect. The fall
of the great Corslcan was as swift as
his rise to power. One campaign, end
ing at Lelpslc, sent him to Elba; from
Elba he returned and with an expedi
tion that seemed almost supernatural,
prepared to take the field. The second
empire lasted but 100 days, yet In this
time were comprised the march from
Paris Into Belgium, and the mighty
struggle at Waterloo.
The shortness of the wars of recent
times Is not by any means occidental,
but attributable entirely to the condi
tions which now prevail. In former
centuries war was carried on by kings
and noblemen through personal mo
tives, to gain private ends or gratify
Individual piques, often petty slights or
affronts, such as are now regarded as
unimportant. Monarchs and noblemen
are now the servants Instead of the
masters of their people, and the re
straints thrown about them by legis
lative bodies are such as often forbid
their personal ambitions or animosi
ties from Involving a nation In war.
War was formerly waged by all the
men of a nation. Every man was a
soldier, but all soldiers did not serve
at once, and while some were engaged
In war, others remained at home to
cultivate their lands and support the
rest. Then armies In the field, In the
most literal sense of the expression,
lived upon the country, the soldiers
paying little regard to the rights of
property, and appropriating without
even the promise of payment every
thing that might be needed for the use
of tho army. Now war Is waged by
regular or volunteer troops, forming,
save In the case of one or two powers,
only a small part of the nation. The
expense of putting an army In the field
and maintaining It there Is enormous,
and of Itself so serious an Item as to
cause rulers to think twice ere com
mitting their people to active hostili
ties. At the close of a war, It Is now
the general practice to compel the van
quished to bear all the cost of the war,
and thus. In addition to the expense
of equipping, maintaining and paying
Its own forces, the vanquished nation
Is compelled to shoulder the burden of
the conquerors, and a knowledge that
every penny will be mercilessly exacted
In case of defeat acts as a deterrent
upon governments that might be ready
to rush Into war.
War fs no longer carried on as It once
was, purely for the love of fighting. In
erller times war was the principal
business of man, and fighting his choic
est amusement. The German nobles of
300 years ago were always fighting,
seizing the slightest occasion of con
troversy to war upon their neighbors
The Italian republics were quite as
warlike, while In France and Spain the
power of the aristocrats was mainly
military, and so lightly did the royal
authority rest upon the higher classes
thnt lords of cities and country cas
tles seldom took the trouble to refer
their disputes to ths crown, but settled
them for themselves, so that all Eu
rope was practically In n state of civil
war: noblemen and small states strug.
glmg with each other about matters not
in themsolvos of the slightest conse.
quence, and which would now be re
garded as Insufficient cause for a law
suit, much less for war.
Under such circumstances, war was
almost continual, disputes were handed
lown from father to son, and thus were ,
wars protracted almost indefinitely. The
hundred years' war between England
and France wns a case In point. Undtr
present conditions It would never have
been waged at all, the differences which ,
operated as cause and occasion would
have been settled by a meeting of rep
resentatives from the two nations. As
with the hundred years' war, so with
the thirty years' war, which, however,
much the historians may attempt to
exalt It as a struggle for religious lib
erty, was brought about quite as much
by political and personal as by religious
considerations, and long before it end
ed Cathollq. and Protestant states were
fighting on both sides.
Such protracted conflicts llko the two
just mentioned were not wars at all In
the modern sense, for the armies of
both sides resolved themselves Into
thieving, murdering, plundering bands,
avoiding decisive engagements nnd lim
iting their operations to sieges of iso
lated castles of twns and the defeat of,
small hostile detachments. Crecy, Pol-,
tiers, Aglncourt, almost every battle of
the hundred years' war was fought be
cause the French were In numbers so
overwhelming as to be confident of vic
tory, and the English army wns placed'
in a position where it was Impossible
to continue a retreat; but the defeats
suffered by the French did not stop the
war, which dragged Its slow length
along as before these thrilling victo
ries. The Bpirlt of the modern age is one
of commerce, of buying and selling. It
Is pre-eminently a peaceful spirit, and
there Is no more serious Interruption
to business interests, nothing Is more
destructive of business prosperity than
war. All nations are now bound to
gether by commercial ties of such In-'
trlcacy that a disturbance of peace re
lations of two states Instantly affects
the general prosperity. War Is thereforo
a serious nuisance in the family of na
tions, deprecated by all, for however
remote It may be from the leadtng cen-1
ters of finance and commerce, Its Injur
ious effects are felt In Paris, In Ber
lin, In New York, In short, wherever
there ore merchants, traders, banks and
bankers. The battle in Manila bay af
fected the commerce of Amsterdam,'
Antwerp and Bremen. Shatter's attack
on Santiago was felt In London and
Paris; Miles advance Into Porto Rico
had Its Influence on the business of all
nations which had representatives on
the Island.
Civilization Is thus approaching a
point where war will not be tolerated
at all when by any possibility It can be
avoided, and where all nations affected
by a quarrel between two will Join
hands to Induce the belligerents to
cease their strife at the earliest pos
sible moment. International arbitra
tion Is yet a dream of the enthusiast,
but the disastrous effectB of war upon
the business of neutrals are such that
after avdeclslve engagement, or at most
a campaign, other nations whose In.
terests are suffering will tender their
good offices to the belligerents to bring
about a return of peace. So long as
present conditions continue, therefore,
wars will probably be slioit. As longi
as human nature remains what It al
ways has been there will be strife; as
long as the lust for conquest, the de
sire for revenge and the love of glory
endure In the world there will be wars,
but In the Interest of civilization the
controlling states of the world will do
what they can to limit the length of
an armed struggle between two and
restrict It to the narrowest possiblo
limits.
Races in tlio Philippines.
Of the seven million Inhabitants found
In the Philippines, very few of them
are Spaniards, less than one-fortieth of
them live In Manila and about one
seventh of the entire population are
believed to be unconquered natives.
Among the natives are found repre
sentatives of Beveral distinct races. The
aborigines were probably the Negritos,
a diminutive, dark-hued race, with
features resembling the American ne
gro. They are still found In limited
numbers, a harmless, nomadic people,
very fond of the dog and of a cigar,
which they frequently smoke with the
lighted end In the mouth.
The aboriginal people were gradually
conquered and driven Into the Interior
by Invading Malays, whose descend
ants now form a large proportion of
the population. The Tagals and Igo
lotes are the most Important of the
Malay tribes, the latter being law-abiding
and devoted to agricultural pur
suits. The Tagals, with more warlike
propensities, occupy the lowlands, llv- ,
Ing near the water In picturesque, ele- '
vated huts. They are In full posses
sion of the Interior of Mindanao, where,
under the sovereignty of their own
sultans, they are free to enjoy the cock
fights, dancing and music, for which
they seem to have a great aptitude.
They have Btrongly fortified villages
on the mountain sides, and while they
acknowledge the suzerainty of Spain
they do not pay taxes nor permit Span
ish officials to reside among them.
Besides these two races there are In
the Philippines Malay Indians and na
tive Caucasians, with a large number
of Chinese and Mestizoes. The laziness
of the natives In time of peace is pro
verbial, but this Is r.ot to be wondered
nt when we know that nature has fur
nished the Islands with a wealth of
vegetation which may be used for food.
-Their Indolence Is probably increased
by the climate, which Is hot and ener
vating. The heat Is, however, greatly
moderated by alternating land and sea
breezes, and a more healthful climate
Its unknown In tropical countries..
"The Philippine Islands." by John A.
Osborne in the Chautauquan for July.
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