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HOW SCIENTISTS
EXAMINE SOILS
I
Survey of Important Work of One
of Branches of Department
of Agriculture.
STUDIED VARIED ACTIVITIES
Bureau Took Active Part With Geo.
logical Survey In Nationwide
Search for Deposit of Nl-
trates and Potash.
During the twenty yenrs of Its
existence, the bureau of soils, United
HtatcH department of agriculture, has
studied tho chemical constituents of
the soils of all parts of tho country. It
i has Investigated these constituents
qualitatively and quantitatively, show.
Ing their relation to one another and
to plants, their .solubility and perma
nency, and tho manner of their func
tioning. It has studied the problem
of alkali that condition arising where
Mills contain an excess of soluble salts
and devised methods for measuring
the content of alkul In the Held and
for eliminating It under Held condi
tions. It hns studied hnrdpans, ex
plained the manner of their formation,
and suggested the means of Improving
lands nlTectcd with the different sorts.
These various activities have Involved
the making of thousands of analyses
and the devising of much apparatus.
Public Given Advice and Counsel.
'Advice nnd counsel Is given by the
bureau to tho public on nil matters
connected with soil chemistry. The
bureau has also Investigated the phys
ical properties of soils. It has devised
apparatus for measuring the tempera
ture of soils, the movement of water
4itul of air nnd other gases In soils.
Tho absorption of wntcr, the extent
and rate of capillary action, tho ef
fect of pressure on the concentration
of the nutrient solution, nnd on the
retention of that solution In the soil,
the relation of soils to erosion, and
many kindred problems havo been
worked upon.
The hurenu has also worked upon
the problem of the ilxntlon of nitrogen
found In tho nlr In Its experimental
factory at Arlington, much advance
having been made. Carried to Its logi
cal conclusion this move will result
In supplying easily all the nitrogen
the country needs In agriculture and
Industry.
Soil surveys have been made In nil
the states of the union. The surveys
lire of two kinds; detailed surveys on
tho scale of one Inch to the mile us
ually covering county units, and re
connolssance surveys much more gen
eral In character, made on scales of
four to six Inches to the mile and
covering large areas. At the close of
the last llscal year an area of Kil.-IST,-
Filter Press, Used in Soil Investing
1 tions.
2100 acres had been surveyed In detail
and It'Ji.'.TOO.OO) acies on a reconnols
sance basis. These surveys Involve
the Identification and classification of
the many types of soils found In vari
ous parts of the country, a study of
their agricultural value, and a de
termination of their relation to the
vinlous crops and systems of agri
culture. Advancement of Agriculture.
The results of the soli survey work
form a basis for the logical advance
ment of agriculture through experi
mentation of bclentillc workers in all
Its varied Hues.
The laud classification work of the
bureau Is done In cooperation with
the forest service and other depart
ments of tho government, and has for
Its purpose the exclusion, from the
national reserves, of lands that are
suited for agriculture.
- An Interesting special Investigation
In connection with the potash supply
has to do with the extraction of this
wilt from the giant kelp of the Pa
cific coast. A fully equipped factory
has been operated at Summerland,
California, for the last two oars, and
thousands of dollars worth of potash
has been sold to the fertilizer trade or
direct to fanners.
The plant vylll be operated during
the coming fiscal year, a careful study
being made of the practicability of
recovering various by-products, so that
the Industry may bo able to compete
with Imported potash ami the kelp
bed's may become a permanently valu
able ns&W of the nation.
bvff LLLLl rB ' k $ " ft tVt
HINTS FOR BUILDING
,ICE HOUSE FOR FARM
Erection of Structure Depends
Much on Local Conditions.
Size of Building and Difficulty of Ob
taining Ice Are Important Fac
torsOther Details Must
f Be Considered.
Construction of n farm Ice house de
pends to a gteat extent upon local con
ditions, the size of the house, nnd the
ditllculty of obtaining Ice. These fac
tors help to determine the sum that
may wisely be spent for such n build
ing. Where Ice Is expensive or hnrd
to obtain, n better constructed nnd In
sulated and therefore more expenslvo
Ice house Is advisable. Where natural
Ice can be harvested and stored
cheaply a cheap structure Is usually
satisfactory and the loss from melting
Ice is n small consideration.
The cost of harvesting and storing,
the Interest on the money Invested,
and repairs and depreciation on the
building nre to be considered In rein-
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A Good Ice House, Well Filled, Is a
Real Asset to the Modern Farmer.
tlon to the Ico loss from melting; nnd
the type of house to bo built depends
upon these factors. It never pays to
build permanently In other than a sub
stantial manner, and careful thought
should be given the matter before
erecting a cheap makeshift that will
not give adequate service.
Various types of Ice houses, how to
build them, ami other phases of the
subject nre discussed In Fanners' Bul
letin 1078, "Harvesting and Storing
lee on the Farm," which can be ob
tained free of charge from the United
States department of agriculture.
OATS ARE ECONOMICAL CROP
Not Generally as Profitable as Some
Other Grains, but Needed In
Good Rotation.
It Is sound farm business to sell
some crops for cash. Farm manage
ment surveys havo shown that the
safest and soundest practice Is to
lane about nncllfth of the total re
ceipts on the farm come from sale of
crops. The other four-fifths will come
from the sale of live stock or live
stock products.
The crop that can usually ho sold
for cash moit economically Is oats.
ats are not generally as profitable a
ci op to grow as some others, hut a
good lotntlon needs this small grain In
it. It makes a very satisfactory con
necting link between the corn crop
and the hay crop. Corn, If sold ns a
cash crop, makes a larger return to
the acre, but corn can usually be fed
more profitably than It can be sold for
cash. It Is ordinnrlly a cheaper feed
than oats. Hence, If any crop Is to
be sold, It should be the oats.
O
WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL
A bushel Is regarded as n deft
nlte weight rnther than a cuhlo
measure In tho estlmntes of pro
duction nnd prices made by tho
bureau of crop estimates. The
weights which are regarded ns a
bushel for various products nre
as follows:
Wheat, 00 lbs.; corn. ffl lbs.
If shelled, 70 lbs If In ear; oat,s,
.'K! lbs,; barley, -18 lbs; rye. fid
lbs.; buckwheat, -18 lbs.; white
(Irish) potatoes, 00 lbs.; sweet
potatoes, ,15 lbs.; npples, 48 lbs,;
pears, -IS. lbs.; peaches, -18 lbs,;
walnuts and hickory nuts, f0
lbs.; beans (dry), 00 lbs.; onfbns,
f7 lbs.; turnips, , lbs.; clover
seed, 00 lbs. ; alfalfa seed, 00 lbs. ;
timothy seed, -15 His.; Kallr corn.
50 lbs. Kstlmntes of yields nnd
prices In tons are always on the
basis of 2,000 pounds.
O:
TESTING SOIL FOR ACIDITY
Experiment Station Will Tell How
Much Limestone to Apply for
Crop of Alfalfa.
It Is n waste of time and monpy to
sow alfalfa on sour soil and If you nre
not sure whether your soil Is ncld or
not test It for acidity or send a sam
ple to your experiment station nnd
have It tested. The experiment sta
tion will not only tell you whether thn
soil Is ncld or not. but will also ndvlse
how much ground limestone to npply
per ncre In order to put It In good con
dition for alfalfa or other legumes.
The lime may be applied uet winter
If time does not penult of npplvlng It
this ft:!!.
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BAflNSMEAN
CONTENTED
CIS
Type of Structure That Con
tains All Modern Equipment.
VENTILATION IS IMPORTANT
Design Provides Accommodations for
Twelve Cows and Six Horses Well
Built and Protected 'Against
the Elements.
By W. A. RADFORD.
Mr. William A. IUdford wilt answet
questions nnd give, advice FREE OK
COST on nil subjects pertaining to the
subject of bulldlnK work on the farm, for
the renders of this paper. On account of
his wide experience. as Editor, Author and
Manufacturer, he Is, without doubt, th
highest authority on all these subjects.
Addrcfls oil Inquiries to William A. Rad
ford, No. 1827 Pralrlo aenue, Chicago,
III., and only Inclose two-cent stamp for
reply.
Whenever you see n good looking
herd of healthy cows, you enn Immedi
ately conclude that they are well fed
nnd housed. Unless n cow Is protect
ed by a modern, substantial home, she
Is not likely to be a heavy producer.
There are severul essential features
In the construction of n dairy barn
that will aid In Increasing production
nnd the barn shown here contains
many of those features. In the first
plnce It should be firmly built nnd pro
tected against the elements of wind,
lightning, etc. If you will notice, this
barn has I u equipped with light
ning rods. Kvery year the toll exact
ed by this single element nmounts to
RS.000.000. And the heaviest loss .s
found among fnnn buildings. In a re
cent report the Ulnted States depart-
mrnt of agriculture statoi that U5 per
cent of this loss can be averted by the
use of efllclent lightning rod sys
tems. Another Important ftnture of bnrn
const rUjCtlon, and one mat has been
taken care of In this building, Is ven
tilation. The health n' the animals
housed In n bnrn of tin- kind depends
primarily on the supp'v and kind of
air they havo to brent . Unless tho
bam has been built so is to provide n
maximum of fresh ul the effect will
be noticed In tho animals' output.
This bnrn has been ltted with the
most modern ventilating system, and
nil the foul air Is tl'ivvii off through
foul air Hues which U it from all parts
of the barn.
This barn Is n goi.. type, built for
fanners who do not have a large herd.
It Is of plank lonstnictloti, 211 by fill
fe, t. and will accon module 1- cov
uinl six lioie-', Tl . cow stalls have
been placed at one end of the burn,
two rows of six ffn.jg In on u feed
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nlley. Litter alleyu iiue uv..u
at the ends of the stalls. All .of theso
alleys have been fitted with overhead
carriers, systems which relieve thin
typo of work. Farmers who hnve
equipped their barns with thesr lnbor
savlng systems hnve found they d
not hnve much trouble keeping their
help. The old system of hnullpg Ut
ter iivvnj In whcelhnrrows was a back
breaking pro)osltlon nt the best, nnd
did much toward discouraging the
help, not to mention making th
former boys dlssntlsflod nnd nnxlouc
to go to the city.
All of the stalls are of the mod
ern tpe, being equipped with tho
latest kind of stanchions anil drink
ing cups. Plenty of good fresh water
will help Increase the milk How. The
drinking cup also does nwny with the
old s,wcm of leading the cows to a
trough, a task which was not very at
tractive In the cold winter nenson.
At the other end of this bnrn nre
loented the six horse stalls with a feed
alley tunning nlong one end. Two
grain bins nt the far corner provide
storage facilities from whence n sup
ply can be drawn for the dally ra
tions. At the end of the feeding alley run
ning between the cow stalls Is n feed
room where the feed con be ground
and loaded onto the carriers for dis
tribution among the various stalls.
The silo Is next to this feed room.' It
lw built of wooden stavett, n type that
Is very popular In pome sections of
he country. The ntnves nre Inter
locked so ns to form n continuous vvnll.
The lightning rod at the top Is de
signed to protect It from fire. A short
(IMntice from the silo Is u small milk
house equipped with n cooler where
the milk can be kept In good condition
until It Is hauled to the factory. This
building Is a very convenient asset to
the farm building group.
A large hay mow above provides
pit nty of space In the barn for feed
storage. For the farmer who has
about ten to a doren covys and a few
horses this type of barn Is very nd
mlrably suited, and should prove tl
be an efllclent unit In his plant. Hu
does not have any waste space, hut
has all the modern conveniences of
tho large ultrn-modern dairy farm.
Constructed of the best material In
the first place, It vylll prove an econ
omy us far as maintenance goes, nnd
nn actual money saver because of Its
effective help In keeping up the mornlo
of the help nnd health of the animals.
The most Important building to tho
farmer Is the dairy bnrn because In
It he houses his all-year source of In
come. Unless he gives It his careful
attention I e Is liable to pay heavily for
his neglect. It Is better to build well
then suffer Inter even though the ex
pense may be somewhat greater. The
Initial cost Is not the Important fac
tor. It Is the upkeep and a good sub
stantial bnrn of this type does not re
quire as much expense us u poorly
constructed bulldlnc.
bU"Ul fc.litiriv.il u
CURE FOR EVILS
Marketing Organization Success
ful Only When Formed on a
Sound Basis of Service.
SUCCEED BY TEAMWORK ONLY
Characteristics and Makeup of Local
Population. Should Be Considered
In Formation of Association
Other Essentials.
There Is no mnglc about co-opera-tlve
marketing, althpugh In hundreds
of enses It has produced remarkable
results. Nor does It serve ns a cure
all for our present distribution prob
lems, though It has proved a success
ful remedy for many present evllB.
There are 14,000 or more farmers' co
operative buying nnd selling associa
tions In this country bearing testimony
to the practicability of tho co-opern-tlve
principle, which Is, In substance,
an economic adaptation of the old po
litical slogan "In union there Is
Btrength."
It Is the desire of the United 'States
department of agriculture that per
Bons Interested In co-operative market
ing thoroughly understand the basis
of such organized effort and follow
tho right methods. The bureau of
mnrkets of the department of agricul
ture, having made nn extensive study
of this subject, Is prepared to advise
with any group of farmers who want
to undertake buying or selling co
operatively. A number of require
ments must be met before prospective
co-operators cun succeed.
In the first plnce the characteristics
nnd make-up of the locnl population
should be considered In the formation
of n co-operative marketing associa
tion. A community which produces n
considerable quantity of one product
or a few products offers better oppor
tunities for an undertaking of this
Members of a Co-operative Organiza
tion Bring Their Wool to Be Pooled.
sort than one which produces a little
of several different products, fine ad
vantage of Joint effort arises from the
bundling of relatively large quantities.
Unfortunntely some groups of fanners
have tried to form marketing associa
tions without having u sufllclent vol
ume of business nnd they have failed.
Loyalty to Co-operative Idea.
If the existing marketing agencies
In the community whether for grain,
wool, fruit, garden produce, or what
ever the line contemplated for co
operative selling nre elllelent nnd rea
sonably adequate, and If the farmers
In tho community feel that they are
being served satisfactorily by these
private concerns It Is doubtful If n co
operntlvo organization will succeed.
Hut If tho existing private agencies
nre Inadequate and If the farmers can
be made to see the saving that will
result to all concerns If they unite
heartily In uu association, then there
Is n good chance of winning. I!ut the
co-operative principle must be adhered
to. Members of nn organization sup
posed to be co-operative cannot be ex
pected to have a vital Interest In a
project which Is really operated for
the profit of and controlled by u few
Individuals,
Many persons do not hnve a clearly
defined Iden of what a co-operative
organization Is. Tho term "co-operative"
Is often used rnther loosely.
Where n concern Is operated for the
proflt of the persons Investing capital
In It nnd seeking dividends on Its cap
ital, the undertaking Is nonco-opera-tlve.
On the other hand, In n co
operative marketing or sailing organi
zation each member usually has one
vote (In n nonco-operntlve concern the
votes are In accord with the money In
vested) so that one or a few members
will not control Its operations. It Is
conducted to render service and effect
savings for the member nnd not to
earn profits for distribution ns divi
dends on the money Invested. To be
sure, n fair rate of Interest Is granted
to capital Invested by the members
and the bnlancc of any surplus to be
distributed Is divided In accordance
with patronage; thnt Is, the nmount of
business transacted with the organiza
tion. Essentials to Success.
Contracts between the members nnd
the organization whereby they agree
to mnrket certain products through It
nre vitally Important In many In
stances, especially In the case of asso
ciations handling perishable products.
The Michigan Potato Growers' ex
rhunge, the Cullfornln Fruit Orowerd'
change nnd ninny other successful
rganlzatlons follow this plan.
Tho pooling of products sold through
he organization Is also nn Important
atnre, Hy pooling Is meant nverag-
ig Hie returns received for products
id during n certain Durrod, or for
hibp':
Wno.e... ,
to adopt the pooling principle5 Imiy
suit in Injustice to somo of the mem
bers, ns experience has proved more
than once. Conditions and practices
In grain marketing make the outright
purchoso of members' products fens
lble, but this docs not usually apply
'to organizations handling other com
modltles.
Form of Organization.
Farmers' co-operative marketing as
sociations are formed with capital
ntock or formed on the nonstock plnn.
Iloth forms havo favornblo features
which tho bureau of markets will bo
glad to explain to nny Interested per
son. Another matter to which careful
attention should be given Is tho proper
financing of a co-operntlve project.
The by-lows of the association should
be. painstakingly drawn and should bo
thoroughly discussed by the member
ship so thnt there will bo no misunder
standing lutcr. The question of Incor
poration will also havo to be decided.
Whllo Incorporation Is not necessury.
In most cases It Is considered ndvlB
nble. Unfortunntely the stntc Iowb
for bodies of the character here dis
cussed ore far from uniform, some of
them making no provision for co
eratlve associations. i ,
Tho above paragraphs serve only to
suggest some of tho prlnclpnl prob
lema thnt have to be considered In
forming n co-operative enterprise. Per
sons wishing to Investigate this matter
further will find It profitable to com
municate with the United States de
partment of agriculture, which will
supply them with literature contain
ing h. full discussion of these and re
lated questions.
WELCOME SOURCE OF
PIN MONEY IN SUMAC
Many Tons of It Allowed to Go to
Waste Each Year.
Plant Can Be Gathered and Cured Any
Time During Summer and Mar
keted Whenever Convenient
Bonus Given for Leaves.
The demand by manufacturers for
American sumac this season totals;
fiOO to 700 carloads, or from 5,000 to
7,000 tons, according to Information
received by the United States depart
ment of agriculture. The price ranges
around $2 a hundred pounds for sumac
delivered at the shipping point or ut
the extract factory.
Country people should find n ready
market this .vcar for all the sumac,
they can gjithur. Being a wild plantr
sumac costs nothing to raise, and tho
many tons of It allowed to remain un
gathered each year can be readily
turned Into profit. The sumac season
lasts about three months. Unlike
berry and other crops, sumac does not
have to be harvested nil at once. It
can be gathered nnd cured from tlino
to time throughout tho summer ami
marketed when large enough quanti
ties have been collected.
In addition to olVerlng higher prices
this yenr, several manufacturers aro
willing to pay bonuse.-, for sullkient
quant ItleS of clean, bright, well-cured
sumac leaves, containing not more
than 10 per cent of stalk. Hy proper
ly gathering nnd curing the sumac, the
gatherer can make more money and
will help to establish more firmly the
domestic sumac Industry, which
through development and expansion
should provide a welcome source of
Income nnd employment in normul
times.
f hither only the black or dwarf
sumac, which can be easily distin
guished from the other varieties by
the peculiar wing growth nlong tho
lent stems nnd by the brittle, blnck
SRccked stalk. In some sections tho
while sumac Is also gathered, hut It
generally brings a lower price, as all
manufacturers prefer the black va
riety. Harvest during July, August
and September, llrcnk the sumac stalk
off close up to the leaves just under
the lowest loaf stem, or, hotter yet,
gather only the leaves and leaf stems.
Do not collect long bnro stalks, as this
produces low-grade, low-priced sumac.
Cured sumac ready for market should
contain very little stalk, never over 25
per cent. If a good bit of stalk hns
been gathered with the sumac It can
bo easjly removed by flailing nnd fork
ing out after the sumac hns been
cured and Is ready for bagging. Do
not gather red or yellow leaves, or
berries and bloom. The bloom will
ruin good sumac. As soon ns tho
sumac has been gathered, placo It In
the shade or under cover. Exposure
to the sum for nn hour or two rnny do
no harm, but the pulled sumac should
never be left nil day in the sun, ns It
will quickly scald and be ruined In
color. Never let tho gathered or
cured sumnc become wet from either
dew or rain. At the end of the day's '
gathering, hnul or carry the sumac to
n barn or cover. Spread It on n clean
floor or on sneks In layers not over
1 feet deep and turn It once or twice
n day until thoroughly dry nnd crisp.
Plow curly for winter wheat.
Sweet clover makes the soil rich
Tuko care of the mowlntr mnehin
- T
Alfnlfn Is an exceedingly profitable.
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